The adult human brain has an innate, natural and normal range of states and activities. Because certain states are uncommon does not make them abnormal. Our brain can have certain of these states triggered into activity by applying various forms of stimulation which are here called “psycho-active agents”. These agents may be bio-chemical compounds (such as a classic hallucinogen), bio-physical sensory or energetic stimulations (such as uniquely crafted light/sound) or cognitive methodologies and/or techniques (such as meditation).
INTRODUCTION:
With all the attention being given to psychedelic compounds, meditation, self-improvement and a wide range of “bio-hacking” techniques, identifying and clarifying some kind of unified principle that links this provocative list of approaches seems warranted.
I propose exploring the concept of a “psycho-active agent” as the likely unifying principle. Here goes.
DEFINITION:
Step #1 - Let’s start with the conventional definition which automatically involves a “drug” and/or a “substance” from the World Health Organization. “Psychoactive drugs are substances that, when taken in or administered into one's system, affect mental processes, eg. perception, consciousness, cognition or mood and emotions. Psychoactive drugs belong to a broader category of psychoactive substances that include also alcohol and nicotine.” (https://www.who.int/health-topics/drugs-psychoactive) I think we need to include good old caffeine here to be complete when it comes considering psycho-active substances. It is interesting to see the softening of the term “drug” with “substance” which is more of a cultural filter than a scientific decision.
Step #2 – Now, let’s focus in on the “psycho-active” aspect and leave out the “drug/substance” element. The Oxford Dictionary defines “psycho-active” as “(chiefly of a drug) affecting the mind”. We just can’t seem to shake off this “drug” association when we explore “psycho-active”. Frankly, this is a fundamental mistake as we will see as we continue on. Perhaps extracting a descriptive phrase from the WHO definition (above) will help to fatten up the definition. Psycho-active indicates something that “affects mental processes eg. perception, consciousness, cognition or moods and emotions”.
Step #3 – The proposal - let’s generalize “drug” and “substance” into the term “agent” which is a more neutral term. Furthermore, and very importantly, let’s not restrict the “agent” to being necessarily a chemical compound of some type. The “agent” can be ANY form of stimulation that has the capacity to “affect mental processes eg. perception, consciousness, cognition or moods and emotions.”
RE-DEFINITION:
A “psycho-active agent” is any stimulation process, including bio-chemical, bio-physical, psychological and methodological techniques, that “affect mental processes eg. perception, consciousness, cognition or moods and emotions.” Not only does this approach expand the mind altering “agency” possibilities but it also removes the implied “negative bias” that occurs with the use of the term “drug” which is only slightly softened by making some of the “agents” “substances”. The typical “not-so-hidden” message is that any “psycho-active” activity is bad even if the motivation is one of relief, healing, exploration, new learning and self-discovery. This is an odd bias considering the massive medical and social acceptance of pharmaceutical drugs many of which are specifically designed to affect psycho-emotional states.
CAREFUL WITH NAMES:
It is quite obvious that psychedelic compounds are “psycho-active agents”. It must also be said that although all psychedelic compounds are “psycho-active agents”, not all “psycho-active agents” are psychedelic compounds. (BTW, notice we have abandoned both “drug” and “substance” terms in favor of “compound” for a little social neutrality.)
Keep in mind the criteria for qualifying as a “Psycho-Active Agent” is that it “affects mental processes eg. perception, consciousness, cognition or moods and emotions.”
The term “psychedelic” is currently used very loosely and even inaccurately. Surprisingly, perhaps the best example would be in the developing professional medical treatment approach known as Psychedelic Assisted Therapy (PAT). In PAT, compounds such as ketamine and MDMA are being explored which are not classic “psychedelics” in molecular structure or neurological process which raises a red flag.
The term psychedelic, from the Greek for “mind-manifesting”, was coined by Humphry Osmond, a British psychiatrist working in Canada in the 1957. “To fathom hell or soar angelic / Just take a pinch of psychedelic,” he wrote in a letter to the writer Aldous Huxley.
In our modern times, the various compounds commonly considered “psychedelic” have been assigned a variety of names. The famous German toxicologist Louis Lewin used the name phantastica earlier in the last century. The most popular alternative names for “psychedelic” have been hallucinogen and psychotomimetic. Aldous Huxley had suggested his own coinage phanerothyme (Greek phaneroein- "visible" and Greek thymos "soul", thus "visible soul") to Osmond in 1956. Most recently, an additional term entheogen has emerged with the “theo/god/divine” spiritual connotation adding a new proposed condition. And perhaps the newest addition to the nomenclature is psychoplastogens —a relatively new class of fast-acting therapeutics, capable of rapidly promoting structural and functional neural plasticity. Psychoplastogenic compounds include psychedelics, ketamine, and several other recently discovered fast-acting antidepressants. Research in rodents has suggested that, generally, for most psychedelics, the period between 6 - 72 hours post-psychedelic experience is when neuroplasticity is at its highest. However, changes may last for much longer. For instance, LSD has been shown to promote the expression of neuroplasticity-related genes in rodents even one month after treatment had ceased.
The "classical" psychedelics, the psychedelics with the largest scientific and cultural influence, are mescaline (peyote cactus & San Pedro cactus), LSD, psilocybin (mushroom genuses Psilocybe, Panaeolus and Copelandia), and DMT. Most psychedelic drugs fall into one of the three families of chemical compounds: tryptamines, phenethylamines, or lysergamides.
From a pharmacological perspective, classic serotonergic psychedelics can be defined with respect to their particular 5-HT2A partial agonism. This includes psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). This particular 5-HT2A partial agonism distinguishes classic serotonergic psychedelics from cannabinoids, and dissociatives such as ketamine, salvinorin A, and entactogens such as 3,4-methyl-enedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), among other substances.
It is in the “Psychedelic-assisted therapy” (PAT) and “Psychedelic-assisted-psychotherapy” (PAP) domains that we come again face to face with the generalized use of the term “psychedelic” and the consideration of its meaning. Currently, the three most active forms of PAT/PAP utilize 1) ketamine, 2) MDMA and 3) psilocybin. All three of these compounds can be correctly described as being “psychoactive” but only one (psilocybin) is categorized as a “psychedelic”. Ketamine (as described above) is a “dissociative” and MDMA as an “entactogen”. More than just terminology, the distinctions are based on fundamentally different bio-chemical characteristics that do not (apparently) rely on the 5-HT2A partial agonism model.
Then we have the terms that aim for non-technical generalization such as “Altered States of Consciousness” (ASC) as well as “Non-Ordinary Conscious States” (NOCS). These broadly defined terms cross many typical boundaries and are open to a wide range of interpretations. Experiences associated with meditation, hypnosis, trance are often grouped into these categories. An altered state of consciousness is any mental state in which one’s ordinary level of wakefulness, attention, or awareness is temporarily shifted in some way. The term “altered state of consciousness”, or ASC for short, was coined by transpersonal psychologist Charles Tart in 1972. Tart defined ASCs as “a temporary change in the overall pattern of subjective experience”.
Compare the definition of an Altered State (any mental state in which one’s ordinary level of wakefulness, attention, or awareness is temporarily shifted in some way) and Tart’s shorter definition (a temporary change in the overall pattern of subjective experience) and finally, the WHO definition of a “psycho-active agent” (affect mental processes eg. perception, consciousness, cognition or moods and emotions) – the result is restatement of the same principle with slightly different language.
On the topic of being careful with names, it is possible that calling this new approach to psychotherapy “Psychedelic Assisted Therapy” will act a s a deterrent to its social acceptance because of the negative baggage that, for many, is associated with the confusing topic of “psychedelics”.
IS A PSYCHO-ACTIVE AGENT DYNAMIC INVOLVED IN THE NEUROPLASTIC PROCESS?
There are numerous studies that recognize that classic psychedelic compounds are directly involved in neuroplastic brain changes. “Clinical studies suggest the therapeutic potential of psychedelics, including ayahuasca, DMT, psilocybin, and LSD, in stress-related disorders. These substances induce cognitive, antidepressant, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive effects suggested to arise from biological changes similar to conventional antidepressants or the rapid-acting substance ketamine. The proposed route is by inducing brain neuroplasticity. (Front Psychiatry. 2021; 12: 724606. Psychedelics and Neuroplasticity: A Systematic Review Unraveling the Biological Underpinnings of Psychedelics, Cato M. H. de Vos, Natasha L. Mason, and Kim P. C. Kuypers)
The question then is whether other non-psychedelic compound “psycho-active agents” are also capable of inducing brain neuroplasticity.
“Neuroplastic mechanisms are triggered by various natural or artificial stimuli, which may arise in the internal or external environment, and they may differ quantitatively or qualitatively. Manifestations of plasticity have probably the same basis, irrespective of the cause which triggered them or the brain region where they were accomplished.” (Physiol Res. 1999;48(2):87-97. Theoretical aspects of neuroplasticity, S Trojan , J Pokorný)
Learning experiences and environments that offer plenty of opportunities for focused attention, novelty, and challenge have been shown to stimulate positive changes in the brain. Packaging “focal attention” with unusual and surprising qualities increases the probability of neuroplastic change. Adding some modest or reasonable level of challenge creates again another level of benefit.
Sensory Enrichment is a subset of the larger concept of Environmental Enrichment which has demonstrated significant positive neuroplastic growth for many decades of experimental research. A well-known formula for generating Sensory Enrichment is to combine these five elements:
- Combine two of the senses (eg. touch/smell, light/sound);
- Combine them in such a way that the experience is novel, unusual, unexpected;
- The method must be free from distractions and permit focal attention;
- The experience must be of free will and not forced;
- The experience optimally is enjoyable.
In Sensory Enrichment, the safe, novel combination of multi-sensory signaling acts reliably as a “psycho-active agent” that promotes enjoyable experiential “altered states” that compound into positive, generalized neuroplastic growth.
Targeted neuroplastic methods have a very similar structure. The three main components (plus the fourth “secret sauce”) are:
- Focal Attention (attention without “tension”);
- Marginal Demand (just a little bit past the “comfort zone);
- Open-minded Willingness or Belief (not forced against one’s will);
- Enjoyable (the Secret Sauce).
WHAT IS NEUROELASTIC COMPARED TO NEUROPLASTIC?
The term and concept of “neuroplasticity” is well known as the ability of the adult brain to undergo positive synaptic and neuronal changes over time. The much less known concept of “neuroelasticity” is usually described as “reversible neuroplasticity” which means that once a neurological state has evolved into a long-lasting trait, that condition will possibly revert back to its old condition unless it is reasonably reinforced. It is another application of the “use it or lose it” process.
In the context of this paper, we are using the term “neuroelastic” in a new and unique way.
Before we have a deeper look at this new use of the term “neuroelastic”, lets examine the basic meanings of “elastic” as compared to “plastic”. Both words come from the Greek. “Plastic” means as the shape is deformed or changed, it will stay in this new shape configuration (hence the term “plastic surgery” – does not mean the material compound of plastic is used but rather that the new surgical shape will persist after the surgery). “Elastic” means as the shape is deformed or changed, when the force of change is removed, the shape will return to its original form (think of an elastic band which snaps back after being stretched).
So, what is the new and unique meaning here for “neuroelastic”?
Our adult human brain is not a static organ. It must be constantly active and responsive to adaptation demands. We now know that our brain remains very active even during sleep as it traverses in and out of many conditions and states. Our sleeping dreams are famously dynamic and, in some senses, hallucinogenic. Our prolonged waking state is a complex mixture of conditional cognition ranging from intense concentration to lofty day dreams, all saturated with a variety of emotional “feelings”, pleasures and pains. The transitional hypnagogic (waking to sleep) and hypnopompic (sleeping to wake) states are an alluring mix of creative information and vivid imagery.
Then we also have the dramatic and expansive “altered states”, “mystical states” and “non-ordinary states” of consciousness that can be experienced from a profound list of triggering “agents” (as is the topic of this paper).
All of this means that our brain is innately designed and capable to shift into all of these various “states” or conditions. And, our brain can move fluidly back out of these states in the constant dance of adaptive activity. This is, here, the new assigned meaning of “neuroelastic” – the ability of our brain to enter a certain state as an adaptive response and then, like an “elastic band” return back to its previous state or even another additional state as required.
This “neuroelastic” quality is clearly evident even in our basic circadian cycle as well as in “macro” movements related to special forms of stimulation. These “special forms of stimulation” are none other than the “psycho-active agents” explored here in this paper.
In this sense, the innate “neuroelastic” capacity of our brain is a very positive feature of natural, healthy brain activity. When our brain gets “stuck” in a state and is not able to adjust in and out of that condition, we have problems with unprocessed experience and even the expression of pathological conditions. The “neuroelastic” capacity of our brain is then being inhibited or restricted.
So, here we have two definitions of “neuroelastic”:
- The conventional and seldom discussed meaning of “reversible neuroplasticity” in which an established neuroplastic change is not reinforced and the brain slowly evolves back to an original behavior (use it or lose it) – this is a slow incremental process;
- The new meaning in which our brain is capable of moving fluidly in and out of adaptive responses and states that are positive for certain periods of time – this fluid behavior can be fast and is dependent on the need for state change in the moment.
THE UNIVERSAL PSYCHO-ACTIVE AGENT:
Following the principle from above (A “psycho-active agent” is any stimulation process, including bio-chemical, bio-physical, psychological and methodological techniques, that affect mental processes eg. perception, consciousness, cognition or moods and emotions.), is there any primal or foundational agent that acts as a trigger of psycho-activity? The answer is YES and the source of this critical insight is in the ancient and evolving Yogic Sciences.
From the yogic perspective, the universal psycho-active agent is “focal attention”.
In the huge repertoire of yogic “pranayama” methods and techniques, using “focal attention” as the psycho-active agent is fundamental. For example, changing the common breath into dynamic “psychic breath” is achieved by coupling “focal attention” with the coarse common breath.
Also, any survey of the wide variety of Eastern and Western meditation and contemplation techniques will find “focal attention” at the heart of the methodology.
It is no coincidence that the first element in the design of any technique to generate neuroplastic change in our brain is also “focal attention”. In the wide variety of modern biofeedback techniques, “focal attention” is aimed at the feedback information in the process of altering the feedback event.
In body centric Western psychology, we find three well known “body scan” techniques.
- Simple Body Scan (derived from Benson “Relaxation Response);
- Active Body Scan (derived from Jacobson “Progressive Muscle Relaxation”);
- Dynamic Body Scan (derived from Schultz “Autogenic Training”).
All three of these approaches employ “focal attention” as the triggering element in the technique.
At an even more primitive biological level, what do pain and pleasure have in common? Simply put, they each command and focus one’s attention into a targeted biological process.
In modern “positive psychology” pioneered by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, that is best now known as the “flow” principle, the four stages are Struggle, Release, Flow and Recover. “Focal attention” is an intrinsic component in this four-stage process. It takes approximately 10 to 15 minutes of focused attention to reach a flow state as one moves first into and out of struggle and into release. In the Struggle phase, “focal attention” is joined by effort. In the Release phase, the effort is abandoned. In the absorption Flow phase, the attention maintains focus but is effortless.
IS STRESS A PSYCHO-ACTIVE AGENT?
Today, the concept of stress and the word itself have a strongly negative connotation. In 1939, Selye introduced his landmark theory of stress. Selye saw “stress” in more complex ways and was very inventive in his exploration. He is most famous for what is known as the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) but we will not focus on that major insight. Rather we will look at a few of his more fundamental understandings.
Selye #1 – Stress in and of itself is neither good or bad – its nature depends on a number of related factors.
Selye #2 - Some type of “agent” acts to introduce challenge into the system – if the degree of challenge (aka “stress”) is sufficient to match and slightly exceed the minimal level of excitation, it will result in an arousal of the adaptive response in the system.
Selye #3 – The stressor “agent” perturbs the “status quo” of the system – the “agent” acts to disrupt or de-stabilize the system and provoke an adaptive response.
Selye #4 – The stress “agent” is not the main factor but instead it is the degree or amount of challenge that is at the core of its action.
Selye #5 – Depending on the context, the challenge may be either a “eustress” (positive) or a “distress” (negative).
Selye #6 – As much as “distress” is definitely a negative, “eustress” is not only positive…it is critical for growth, learning, adaptation and even survival itself.
Selye #7 - Eustress occurs when the gap between what one has and what one wants is slightly pushed, but not overwhelmed. The goal is not too far out of reach but is still slightly more than one can handle. This fosters challenge and motivation since the goal is in sight. The function of challenge is to motivate a person toward improvement and a goal. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustress)
COMPARING PSYCHEDELICS & MEDITATION AS PSYCHO-ACTIVE AGENTS FOR MYSTICAL EXPERIENCES:
One way of exploring the potential “psycho-active agent” concept is to compare neurological outcomes when different agents are used. Fortunately, modern neuroimaging technologies are yielding exciting and sometimes profound evidence that was never before available.
The following approaches have been compared. The names are best effort to assign terminology that permits easy identification.
Drug-induced Ego Dissolution (DIED). A family of acute effects produced by high doses of psychedelic drugs, typically reported as a loss of one’s sense of self and self-world boundary.
Focused Attention (FA). A common style of meditation that involves sustaining one’s attentional focus on a particular object, either internal (e.g., breathing) or external (e.g., a candle flame). The practitioner is instructed to monitor their attention, notice episodes of distraction (mind-wandering), and bring their attention back to the object. FA is usually the starting point for novice meditators.
Loving-Kindness Meditation (LK). A common style of meditation that focuses on developing compassion and love for oneself and others, gradually extending the focus of empathy to foreign and disliked individuals or even all living-beings. While loving-kindness meditation incorporates technical elements from FA and open monitoring (OM, defined below), it has a distinct phenomenology and neural correlates due to its emotional content.
Mantra Recitation (MR). A style of meditation that involves repeating a sound, word or sentence, either aloud or in one’s mind, in order to calm the mind and avoid mind-wandering. Although MR is arguably a form of Focused Attention meditation, it is distinguished by its speech component and may have distinct neural correlates.
Meta-Awareness. The ability to take note of the content of one’s current mental state. In the context of meditative practices, meta-awareness often refers specifically to the meditator’s awareness of episodes of mind-wandering (spontaneous thoughts arising during meditation).
Mindfulness Meditation. A group of practices aimed at cultivating mindfulness, typically defined as a state of non-judgmental awareness to one’s present moment experience. Mindfulness meditation may refer to both focused attention (FA) and open monitoring (OM) practices.
Non-Dual Awareness (NDA). In many contemplative traditions (including Advaita Vedanta and Kashmiri Shaivism within Hinduism, and Dzogchen and Mahamudra within Buddhism), the practice of meditation aims at recognizing the illusory nature of the subject-object dichotomy that allegedly structures ordinary conscious experience, thus revealing the “non-dual awareness” that lies at the background of consciousness.
Open Monitoring (OM). A common style of meditation that aims at bringing attention to the present moment and openly observing mental contents without getting caught up in focusing on any of them. Open monitoring meditation traditionally follows focused awareness, as the practitioner learns to switch from a narrow attentional focus on an object to a global awareness of the present moment.
Psychedelic Drugs. A family of psychoactive compounds whose complex effects on the quality of conscious experience are mainly mediated by their action on serotonin receptors in the brain (and specifically their binding to and stimulation of serotonin 2A receptor subtype). Psychedelic substances include mescaline, psilocybin (so-called “magic mushrooms”), Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD), N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and the DMT-containing brew Ayahuasca.
Pure Consciousness (PC). A state of consciousness described as “objectless” or entirely devoid of phenomenal content. While the possibility of such states is very controversial, certain conscious states induced by some meditative practices and classical psychedelics might lack at least ordinary phenomenal content. In the Hindu and Buddhist traditions, the practice of Samadhi is often described as leading to the experience of PC. (Front. Psychol., 04 September 2018, Sec. Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, Volume 9 - 2018 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01475, Psychedelics, Meditation, and Self-Consciousness, Raphaël Millière, Robin L. Carhart-Harris, Leor Roseman, Fynn-Mathis Trautwein, Aviva Berkovich-Ohana)
“Over the past two and a half decades, a wide range of neuroimaging methods, including molecular, magnetic, and electrocortical modalities, have been used to study the effects of classic hallucinogens in humans. Multiple neural processes in nearly every major cortical and subcortical division of the brain have been reported to be modulated by classic hallucinogens. Obviously, hallucinogen-related changes in these brain areas cannot be taken as absolute markers of mystical experience, since not all experiences with classic hallucinogens are mystical. Substances such as psilocybin are neither necessary nor sufficient for producing such experiences, and 5HT2A receptor agonism may play only an initiatory role in the brain processes that account for or correlate with mystical experiences.” (Barrett FS, Griffiths RR (in press). Classic Hallucinogens and Mystical Experiences: Phenomenology and Neural Correlates. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. Epub Ahead of Print: 2017 Mar 26. DOI: 10.1007/7854_2017_474)
“One approach to exploring the neural basis of mystical experience is to consider brain states produced by other approaches to occasioning mystical experiences, such as meditation practices. Although meditation encompasses a broad range of practices, a few specific practices have been the focus of brain imaging studies. These include focused awareness, open awareness or open monitoring, and non-dual awareness. Focused awareness practice typically involves attentional focus on an explicit object of consciousness (e.g., breath exhalation). In contrast, the intention of an open awareness practice is effortless sustaining of awareness without explicit selection of a discrete object of focus. In both cases, a goal is to cultivate nonattachment to thoughts or distractions that may arise, with the further goal of stabilizing the mind. Such practices may ultimately lead to experiences of unity, with more specific objects of consciousness receding into the background. Non-dual awareness practices are a more subtle and perhaps a more direct technique of cultivating the experience of unity or pure awareness. In these practices, the object of attention is awareness itself or, as some have described it, awareness of awareness. The non-dual or transcendental unitive state that can arise from such practices appears to be descriptively identical to those described in peak mystical experiences, especially in terms of the dissolution of the conventional sense of personhood or the lack of differentiation between the sense of self and other (i.e., mystical unity).” (Nash JD, Newberg A (2013) Toward a unifying taxonomy and definition for meditation. Front Psychol 4(806):1–18); (Lutz A, Slagter HA, Dunne JD, Davidson RJ (2008) Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. Trends Cogn Sci 12(4):163–169); (Josipovic Z (2010) Duality and nonduality in meditation research. Conscious Cogn 19:1119–1121); (Barrett FS, Griffiths RR (in press). Classic Hallucinogens and Mystical Experiences: Phenomenology and Neural Correlates. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. Epub Ahead of Print: 2017 Mar 26. DOI: 10.1007/7854_2017_474)
The experience of unity that is central to mystical experiences involves a decrease in self-referential processing. There is compelling evidence for a network of brain areas (i.e., the nodes of the DMN) that are involved in self-referential processing and maintenance of a sense of the self in space and time. Decreased activity in these areas has been observed using multiple imaging modalities, both after administration of classic hallucinogens and during meditation practice. The idea is that psychedelics induce disintegration and desegregation of functional brain networks. The PCC, MPFC, and IPL can be considered connector hubs that support the small-world architecture of the brain; thus, breakdown of long-distance connections between these nodes, or decreased integration and segregation of these nodes of the DMN, that is observed with meditation and classic hallucinogens may be a marker of altered brain state that is consistent with mystical experiences. (Barrett FS, Griffiths RR (in press). Classic Hallucinogens and Mystical Experiences: Phenomenology and Neural Correlates. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. Epub Ahead of Print: 2017 Mar 26. DOI: 10.1007/7854_2017_474)
The following can be said to be specific to mystical experiences occasioned by meditation or classic hallucinogens:
(1) activity within the medial nodes of the DMN will decrease, and communication between these nodes and other cortical targets in associative and sensory processing cortex will be fundamentally altered, in support of decreased self-referential processing during introvertive mystical experiences;
(2) activity within the lateral nodes of the DMN will decrease, and communication between these nodes and other cortical targets will be fundamentally altered, in support of the experience of timelessness and spacelessness experienced during introvertive mystical experiences;
(3) long-distance cortical communication will generally decrease, while local sensory and associative processing is maintained to some degree, during mystical experiences;
(4) “small-world” (localized activities) properties of the brain will decrease during mystical experiences.
(Barrett FS, Griffiths RR (in press). Classic Hallucinogens and Mystical Experiences: Phenomenology and Neural Correlates. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. Epub Ahead of Print: 2017 Mar 26. DOI: 10.1007/7854_2017_474)
Based on the information above, it can be safely said that both classic hallucinogens and a range of meditation techniques can be considered as effective “psycho-active agents” in regards to “mystical experiences” even though classic hallucinogens and meditation techniques utilize radically different mechanisms of stimulation. Another way of saying it is that different agents can create the same end point actions.